Infrared and Ultraviolet Light Essay Example

Infrared and Ultraviolet Light Paper Name: Tutor: Course: Date: We will write a custom essay sample on Infrared and Ultraviolet Light specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Infrared and Ultraviolet Light specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Infrared and Ultraviolet Light specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Infrared and Ultraviolet Light Infrared Light Infrared light is a form of electromagnetic radiation whose wavelengths are longer compared to visible light. The electromagnetic spectrum exhibits a vast range of wavelengths spanning from highly energetic gamma rays and short wavelengths to low-energy radio waves and long wavelengths. The visibility of this spectrum is extremely small. Infrared light is similar to normal light only that it has a longer wavelength thus making it impossible to see with the naked eye (White 42). The range of infrared wavelengths corresponds to an approximate frequency range of 430 THz to 300GHz. It also includes the thermal radiation given off by objects at room temperature. Infrared light is absorbed or emitted by molecules whenever they alter their vibrational-rotational movements. William Herschel discovered infrared radiation in the year 1800. He was performing a study on the heating effect of different light colors. The different colors of light were produced by a passing normal light through a prism. In his study, Herschel noted that the strength of the heat increased as he progressed from the blue end to the red end of the spectrum. He presented his results in London and called the red light ‘Calorific rays’. The term ‘infrared’ was adopted later in the 19th century (Read 32). Primarily, infrared is divided into three distinct spectrums. These include far infrared, mid infrared and near infrared. The division of infrared light on this basis depends on the wavelength. However, these divisions are not precise since they vary depending on the publisher. These divisions are used to observe temperature ranges in environments such as space. They are justified by the different responses humans have on radiation. In this case, near infrared exhibits radiation with the closest wavelength. This makes it visible to the human eye. Far and mid infrared categories, lie further away from the visual spectrum. Unfortunately, there are no international standards for such specifications. The boundary separating infrared light from visible light is not defined clearly. The sensitivity of the human eye is not designed to detect light with a wavelength above 700nm (White 64). Therefore, light with longer wavelengths does not make significant contributions to scenarios illuminat ed by common sources of light. Since its discovery, infrared light has proven useful in a number of fields. For example, infrared is used to facilitate night vision. Night vision devices function by converting ambient light photons into visible light. Additionally, infrared light can also be used in determining the temperature of objects through a process known as thermography. Thermography is mainly applied in industrial and military applications (Read 64). However, this technology is making its way into the public through infrared cameras, due to the reduced cost of productions. Since all objects emit infrared radiation based on their temperatures, thermography is used to have a clear picture of the environment regardless of whether there is visible illumination or not. Infrared homing or infrared tracking refers to a missile guiding system that tracks a target using its electromagnetic spectrum. Missiles that use this infrared technology are coined the term ‘heat seekers’. Many objects such as vehicle engines, aircrafts and people produce and retain heat. This heat can then be tracked using infrared technology. Additionally, infrared radiation can be used as a source of heat. One advantage of this is that the technology is used to create infrared saunas used to treat chronic health illnesses such as arthritis, congestive heart failure and high blood pressure. This technology is also used to thaw ice on aircraft wings. Infrared radiation is also becoming popular in safe heating therapy for physiotherapy and natural health. Additionally, heat from infrared radiation can be used in cooking. Primarily, infrared heaters include three parts, a heat exchanger, infrared bulbs, and a fan for blowing air into the exchanger for heat dispersion. Indeed, the discovery of infrared radiation has led to significant breakthroughs that have benefited humanity. However, this form of electromagnetic radiation has several disadvantages. For example, when this radiation is used in certain settings such as high heat industrial locations, it becomes a health hazard to the user’s eyes thus causing damage or blindness. Another disadvantage is that it has short-range transmission compared to other forms of transmission. Other than having short-range transmission, the transmission of infrared radiation is slow compared to wired transmission. Furthermore, all infrared signals can be interrupted by foreign materials when they are in the path of the transmission. Such materials may include people and walls. Ultraviolet Light Ultraviolet light or UV light is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a short wavelength compared to visible light. However, its wavelength is longer than that of X-rays. Similar to infrared light, ultraviolet light cannot be detected by the human eye due to its long wavelength. Blunt (18) argues that this form of radiation bears increased energy compared to visible light. It is capable of breaking bonds between molecules and atoms and altering the chemical composition of materials. UV light can also cause fluorescence in certain substances. This means that it causes certain materials to emit visible light. UV light, present in sunlight, is beneficial since it kills microorganisms and acts as a source of vitamin D. Even though UV light is not visible, we are aware of it through certain effects such as sunburn or suntan. With the sun acting as a major source of UV light, the ozone layer plays a vital role in blocking most of this light (97%) that would otherwise prove harmful to organisms if it gained access into the atmosphere (Blunt 37). The 3% that penetrates the atmosphere is not particularly harmful, although it can cause cancer and long-term damage to the skin. Primarily, the sun is a source of all categories of UV light such as UV-A and UV-B. The discovery of this radiation is associated with the phenomenon that silver salts become dark when exposed to light. Johann Ritter in 1801 observed that invisible light, after the violet end of visible light, darkened paper soaked in silver chloride. Initially, he named these rays â€Å"oxidizing rays† to differentiate them from heat rays (infrared) discovered in the previous year and to emphasize chemical reactivity. The terms â€Å"heat rays† and â€Å"chemical rays† were used to describe these rays throughout the nineteenth century, but they were later dropped for infrared radiation and ultraviolet radiation respectively (Read 32). UV light, UV-B in particular, benefits humans by allowing the manufacture of vitamin D. This is achieved by the conversion of skin chemicals into the sub-form of the vitamin, and then into the vitamin itself. This vitamin is beneficial to human health. Lack of this vitamin leads to immunity disorders, various cancers, high blood pressure, and cardiovascular diseases (Blunt 76). Severe lack of this vitamin causes bone diseases referred to as rickets. Inadequate supply of sunlight is the prime cause of the vitamin’s deficiency. UV light is also used in the technology of fluorescent lamps that apply the fluorescence phenomenon (Read 81). Most fluorescent lamps use UV light as their energy source to ionize mercury vapor. A special fluorescent coating absorbs this ionized vapor to produce visible light. Zoologists and biologists use ultraviolet light to take night surveys on organisms in the field. UV light is also used as insect traps. Since insects are naturally attracted to UV light, entomologists use it to attract them for studies. UV fluorescence is also used in parties and nightclubs by causing clothing to glow and make it appealing. Astronomers also use UV light in mapping galaxies such as the Milky Way. This allows them to make out the evolution of galaxies over time. Primarily, young stars emit more ultraviolet radiation compared to older stars. They also emit UV light at a higher proportion at the furthest end of the spectrum. Regions where new stars are born, therefore, produce a brighter UV glow. Astronomers use this knowledge to identify and map such regions. Despite the numerous benefits UV radiation provides humanity, it also has disadvantages. The ability of UV light to change the chemical composition is harmful. As UV light causes minor skin irritations such as sunburn, radiation that is more energetic, can lead to premature skin aging (Blunt 97). It can also lead to alterations of the DNA that can eventually cause skin cancer. Furthermore, overexposure to ultraviolet light causes the skin to produce a pigment known as melanin. Melanin is harmful to the skin and can lead to cancers such as melanoma. Works Cited Blunt, Katharine. Ultraviolet Light. Chicago, Ill: The University of Chicago press, 2011. Print. Read, F H. Electromagnetic Radiation. Chichester [Eng.: J. Wiley, 2010. Print. White, Laurie. Infrared Radiation. Amherst, N.Y: Amherst Media, 2009. Print.

Health Decisions and the Biopsychosocial Model Essay Example

Health Decisions and the Biopsychosocial Model Essay Example Health Decisions and the Biopsychosocial Model Essay Health Decisions and the Biopsychosocial Model Essay Cardiovascular disease and hypertension Is heredity In my family. Last year I had a chance to experience how biological factors Influenced my decision to have a complete checkup because of preventive care. This Included a complete blood work up and physical assessment. The outcome from the tests revealed that my cholesterol was elevated and my blood pressure as well. For some unknown reason, I put off seeing the doctor long as possible due to the possible risk of these diseases. The doctor provided me with education material on these diseases, and how to monitor the conditions. Also he recommended that I eat healthier. The positive decision to get a complete checkup has made me aware; that I can live a normal healthy life by maintaining a healthy diet and exercising as prescribed. Based on my decision to seek medical advice was a psychological factor that influenced the turning point in my life. I had emotional problems about accepting the Ruth, if the outcome was positive. I delayed the checkup because I did not want to face the possible risk of cardiovascular and hypertension. It seemed that I blocked it out of my mind due to my mom suffering and dying with the same diseases. I felt depressed and angry because I did not want to be diagnosed with the disease. But, on the other hand I wanted to be healthy, physical and mental. Learning to deal with the outcome has helped me to adjust my feelings, and has motivated my decision to cake care of my health. Social factors can definitely have an influence in one decision to stay healthy. For example, I have struggled with being overweight since I had my daughter. About six months ago I started to cut back on what I ate and stop eating out. I met a new friend and he constantly wanted to dine out before I knew it, I had started to gain the weight back. I am happy that I was able to re-evaluate and gain control of my life to eat healthier.

Hands by Sherwood Anderson Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Hands by Sherwood Anderson - Essay Example The story is about Wing Biddlebaum, a fat little old man from Winesburg, Ohio. Wing Biddlebaum was driven out of Pennsylvania, his original hometown, after he was falsely accused of molesting a young boy in a school where he used to teach. This happened because of his habit of caressing the boys’ hairs and shoulders whenever he talked to them. Wing’s seemingly uncontrollable hands manifest his grotesqueness. The central symbol of this story is hands, which figure as agents of conflicting aims of different characters and demonstrate Wing’s helplessness and vulnerability. Discussion We are told that ‘Winesburg was proud of the hands of Wing Biddlebaum in the same spirit in which it was proud of Banker White's new stone house and Wesley Moyer's bay stallion’ (Anderson 16). His hands are a distinguished feature which amazes the citizens of Winesburg, but he seems not to notice and instead is afraid of them. Many citizens, including George Willard, have m any times wanted to ask him about his hands and why he seemed frightened by their power. This fear of his hands shows his grotesque nature. Wing hides his hands in fear that he might repeat the incident at the school. This is despite the fact that he had pure intentions in everything he did. ‘In a way, the voice and hands, the stroking of the shoulders and the touching of the hair was a part of the schoolmaster's efforts to carry a dream into the young minds.

History on the start of the U.S. Air Mail Term Paper

History on the start of the U.S. Air Mail - Term Paper Example Even the American Congress was not much interested in giving funding to the postal department for developing air mail system earlier. But the American military has come forward for the rescue of the postal department and they have extended great support to the postal department for developing air mail routes and to train the postal department pilots in using airplanes. Moreover, the American electrical companies has developed and provided navigation equipments for the usage of postal department planes and finally after watching the huge success of air mail system, American Congress also come forward to the rescue of the postal department. From there onwards American postal department never looked back and developed one of the most advanced air mail delivery system in the world. This paper analyses the American air mail history and early developments. Postal service was probably one of the ancient communication means in the world. Even though road, rail and sea paths were used earlier for mail deliveries, it caused lot of difficulties in sending and receiving mails through these mail methods. The need for fast delivery of mails has brought the idea of airmail delivery system. â€Å"THE FIRST aerial mail transportation may be traced back to 1870, when in that year letters were carried out of beleaguered Paris by free balloons, cast adrift in the winds.   The first of such flights was made on September 23, 1870, and carried 500 pounds of mail† (Keogh) The need for aerial route for fast mail delivery system has been realized even before the 20 th century. Most of the Airplanes which used earlier for war purposes were controlled by the military and hence air mail delivery using airplanes were not imaginable earlier. But the usefulness of airplanes in mail delivery has been realized by human kind at the beginning of the 20 th century itself and in countries like India, England and

MHE510, Occupational Health and Safety, Mod 4 Case Assignment Essay

MHE510, Occupational Health and Safety, Mod 4 Case Assignment - Essay Example In this case, the patient sued the company he is working for because he has mesothelioma and has been exposed to asbestos. He admits that he has had several positions and all of them exposed him to asbestos. The UK courts have determined that the exposure is work related and now must determine how much of the cost of the workmans compensation each of the companies are responsible for (OSullivan, 2010). Before this writer could take a position, there are some things that must be known? Does or has this employee actually worked in a company where he might have been exposed to asbestos? What kind of lung cancer does he presently have and is he a smoker? Have there been any tests to assure that this lung cancer is coming from exposure to asbestos? If the answer to number one is true and number three is positive, the answer has to be that this is a workmans comp case. Workmans compensation is meant to cover a disabled worker who has been injured on the job with a fixed income in an effort to avoid litigation because of the injury. These awards are awarded for disability or to the family in the case of death (cornell.edu, 2010). It was the first critical legislation that was provided in liability. It has changed quite a lot since that original ruling and there is more onus on the boards to determine whether an exposure was from work or personnel. In the case of asbestos, there are now very specific things, including small particle masks that an employer is supposed to use. If they do not and the employee is exposed, it is not difficult to determine where the exposure happened. There are other more difficult cases however (Anderson, 2000). An example of this is the firefighter that gets lung cancer and is also a smoker. It is known from studies (Guidotti, 2007) that firefighters are exposed to many carcinogens therefore the suggestion for those exposures is as follows. "There is presumption justified for the following cancers: bladder, kidney, testicular and brain

Effect of H1N1 Swine Virus on Humans

Effect of H1N1 Swine Virus on Humans How does the new H1N1 swine virus infect humans compared to the common influenza virus? SUMMARY Pandemic influenza viruses cause significant mortality in humans. In the 20th century, there are 3 influenza viruses which caused major pandemics: the 1918 H1N1 virus, the 1957 H2N2 virus, and the 1968 H3N2 virus. All three aforementioned pandemics were caused by viruses containing human adapted PB2 genes. In March and early April 2009, a new swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus (S-OIV) emerged in Mexico and the United States. During the first few weeks of strain surveillance, the virus spread worldwide to many countries by human-to-human transmission (and perhaps due to the airline travel). In 2 months time, 33 countries had officially reported 5.728 cases resulting in 61 deaths, and by June 2009 WHO reported 30 000 confirmed cases in 74 countries. On June 11 of 2009, this led the World Health Organization (WHO) to raise its pandemic alert to level 5 (Human-to-human spread of the virus into at least 2 countries in 1 WHO region) of 6 (Human-to-human spread of the virus into at least 1 other country in a different WHO region in addition to phase 5 criteria). According to the sayings of Smith et al. (2009), this virus had the potential to develop into the first influenza pandemic of the twenty-first century. In the early summer of 2009, the causes of the human infection and influenza spread among humans had still remained unknown although many publications of that period tried to elucidate this influenza outburst. For example, according to the sayings of Palese, the new H1N1 could also die out entirely. â€Å"Theres a 50-50 chance it will continue to circulate†, he predicts. Conclusively, in that early period, the fuzziness of the data about this new viruss behaviour led scientists only to speculate using past data. Today the 2009 H1N1 virus has ultimately created the first influenza pandemic, has disproportionately affected the younger populations (which perhaps reflects the protection in the elderly due to their exposure to H1N1 strains before 1957), bu t turned out to be not highly pathogenic because the majority of cases of 2009 influenza A H1N1 are mild. Genomic analysis of the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) virus in humans indicates that it is closely related to common reassortant swine influenza A viruses isolated in North America, Europe, and Asia. Therefore, it contains a combination of swine, avian, and human influenza virus genes. More studies need be conducted to identify the unrecognized molecular markers for the ability of S-OIV A (2009 H1N1) to replicate and be transmitted in humans. As a result these additional studies would help us to determine the mechanism by which an animal influenza A virus crossed the species barrier to infect humans. Additionally, these molecular determinants can be used to predict viral virulence and pathogenicity for diagnosis. 1. LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1. Introduction â€Å"Swine flu† †influenza A [Family Orthomyxoviridae (like influenza B and C viruses), Genus Influenzavirus A] is currently the greatest pandemic disease threat to humankind (Salomon and Webster, 2009). The incidence and spread in humans of the â€Å"swine flu† influenza A virus has raised global concerns regarding its virulence and initially regarding its pandemic potential. The main cause of the â€Å"swine flu† has been identified to be the human infection by influenza A viruses of a new H1N1 (hemagglutinin 1, neuraminidase 1) subtype, or â€Å"2009 H1N1 strain† (Soundararajan et al., 2009) that contains genes closely related to swine influenza (SI) [also called swine flu, hog flu and pig flu]. Thus, the strains of virus that cause the annual seasonal flu are different than the new swine flu viruses that emerged in the spring of 2009. Consequently, as it will be analyzed in the subsequent chapters, the new swine flu virus has a unique combinatio n of gene segments from many different sources (a combination that has not been previously reported among swine or human influenza viruses) and specifically is thought to be a mutation of four known strains of the influenza A virus, subtype H1N1: 1. one endemic in (normally infecting) humans, 2. one endemic in birds, 3. and two endemic in pigs (swine). According to Yoon and Janke (2002), the constant evolution of influenza A viruses through mutation and reassortment present a complex and dynamic picture which is to be unfolded in the remaining Literature Review section more specifically for the H1N1 2009 virus. 1.2. Influenza Influenza is historically an ancient disease of global dimension that causes annual epidemics and, at irregular intervals, pandemics. Influenza is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by the influenza virus (see  § 1.3). When compared with the majority of other viral respiratory infections (such as the common cold), the infection by influenza often causes a more severe illness (Smith, 2003). Influenza-like illness (ILI) is defined by the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) as fever (with temperature above 37,8 °C) and either cough or some throat in the absence of any other known cause. According to Webster (1999), influenza is the paradigm of a viral disease in which the continued evolution of the virus is of paramount importance for annual epidemics and occasional pandemics of disease in humans which is attributed to the fact that the H1N1 virus does not fit to the strict definition of a new subtype for which most of the population has not any experience of previous infection (Sullivan et al, 2010) as it is justified later in this Literatute Review section ( § 1.8). Influenza is transmitted by inhalation of microdroplets (because the transmission via large-particle droplets requires close contact which is attributed to the fact that these large-particle droplets cannot remain suspended in the air for a long period of time) of respiratory secretions, often expelled by coughing or sneezing, that contain the virus or from other bodily fluids (such as fomites, diarrheal stool etc.). The incubation period is between 1 to 5 days. Symptoms typically include fever, headache, malaise, myalgia, cough, nasal discharge, and sore throat. In severe cases of influenza, a secondary bacterial pneumonia can lead to the death of a patient (Suguitan and Subbarao, 2007). Vaccination and antiviral treatment constitute the two major options for controlling influenza and are the most effective means of preventing influenza virus infection and further transmission in humans. 1.2.1. Pandemic Influenza An influenza pandemic is a large-scale global outbreak of the disease, whereas an epidemic is considered more sporadic and localized. The aforementioned (in the Summary section) situation of pandemic influenza occurs when a previously circulated human influenza A virus [although all the three types (A, B, and C) of influenza viruses can infect humans)] acquires novel antigenic determinants from an animal-origin influenza virus and now can infect and propagate in humans in the absence of any pre-existing immunity (see  § 1.7 for details). Several influenza subtypes have infected humans. Historical accounts led us to consider that an average of three influenza pandemics have occurred each century, at intervals ranging from 10 to 50 years (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). The three influenza pandemics which occurred in the previous (20th) century are: 1. The â€Å"Spanish† influenza pandemic of 1918 (H1N1 subtype), 2. The 1957 â€Å"Asian flu† (H2N2), and 3. The 1968 ‘‘Hong Kong flu (H3N2). These pandemics resulted in high morbidity, death, and also considerable social and economic disruption. They provide health authorities information on which to base preparations for a future pandemic.The first influenza pandemic of the 21st century, due to a new strain of A(H1N1) virus, was declared on 11 June 2009 by the Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO) [Collin et al., 2009] by raising the H1N1 flu virus pandemic alert level to phase 6 as it was mentioned in the Summary section. Although influenza B viruses do not cause pandemics, during some epidemic years they have caused more significant mortality and morbidity than influenza A viruses (FLUAV) [Garcia-Sastre, 2005]. 1.3. Influenza Virus It was already mentioned that influenza viruses are divided into three types designated A, B, and C (according to the antigenic differences of their internal structural components as it is discussed below in the current chapter). Influenza types A and B are responsible for epidemics of respiratory illness that occur almost every winter and are often associated with increased rates for hospitalization and death. As it was mentioned in the previous chapter, influenza A virus has also the capability of developing into pandemic virus. Type C infection usually causes either a sporadic mild or asymptomatic respiratory illness or no symptoms at all (Smith, 2003). In comparison to B and C influenza types which are specific to humans, type A viruses can have different hosts, both birds and different mammals (e.g. horses and pigs) including humans (Ã…sjà ¶a and Kruse, 2007). Specifically, influenza B virus strains appear to infect naturally only humans and have caused epidemics every few years (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). On the other hand, influenza A viruses are significant animal pathogens of poultry, horses and pigs, and multiple antigenically diverse strains exist in a aquatic wild bird reservoir (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). Migrating aquatic birds carry viruses between the continents and thereby play a key role in the continuing process of virus evolution (Murphy et al., 1999). Influenza C virus causes more limited outbreaks in humans and according to Schmitt and Lamb (2005) also infects pigs. Although influenza viruses belong to the best studied viruses, according to Haller et al. (2008), the molecular determinants, which govern the increased virulence of emerging virus strains in humans and which may be associated with their transmission and transmissibility, are presently not well understood. Influenza viruses are negative-strand RNA[1] viruses with a segmented genome (which replicates in the nucleus of the infected cell) belonging to the Orthomyxoviridae family. The morphology of the influenza virion is described in the next chapter. On the basis of antigenic differences influenza viruses are divided into influenza virus types A, B and C. Influenza A viruses are classified on the basis of the antigenic properties of their haemagglutinin (H or HA) and their neuraminidase (N or NA) structural spike-shaped surface glycoproteins (antigens): to date, 16HA (H1-H16) and 9NA (N1-N9) subtypes have been identified (Osterhaus et al., 2008) which gives a theoretical possibility of 144 serological subtypes. Subtypes of influenza A viruses are constantly undergoing small antigenic modifications (antigenic drift) [which is a serotypic change] due to the accumulation of point mutations in their genetic material. In addition, due to the segmented genome, genetic reassortment occurs perio dically when HA and NA genetic material is exchanged between viruses, thereby causing major antigenic changes (antigenic shift) [Yoon and Janke, 2002], the emergence of a new subtype (Smith, 2003) and perhaps the potential for a pandemic outbreak. Both antigenic shift and drift are discussed in  § 1.7. The family Orthomyxoviridae, except the aforementioned influenza viruses A, B and C, also contains the Thogoto viruses. Thogoto viruses are transmitted by ticks and replicate in both ticks and in mammalian species and are not discussed as part of this assignment (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). 1.4. Influenza Virus Virion This paragraph describes the (belonging to the Orthomyxoviridae family) virus virion[2] morphology. These virions are spherical or pleomorphic, 80-120 nm in diameter (see 1). Some of them have filamentous forms of several micrometers in length. The virion envelope[3] is derived from cell membrane lipids, incorporating variable numbers of virus glycoproteins (1-3) and nonglycosylated proteins (1-2) [Fauquet et al., 2005]. 1. (Left) Diagram of an Influenza A virus (FLUAV) virion in section. The indicated glycoproteins embedded in the lipid membrane are the trimeric hemagglutinin (HA), which predominates, and the tetrameric neuraminidase (NA). The envelope also contains a small number of M2 membrane ion channel proteins. The internal components are the M1 membrane (matrix) protein and the viral ribonucleoprotein (RNP) consisting of RNA segments, associated nucleocapsid protein (NP), and the PA, PB1 and PB2 polymerase proteins. NS2 (NEP), also a virion protein, is not shown (Fauquet et al., 2005). (Right) Negative contrast electron micrograph of particles of FLUAV. The bar represents 100 nm (Fauquet et al., 2005). The lipid envelope is derived from the plasma membrane of the cell in which the virus replicates and is acquired by a budding process (see  § 1.5) from the cell plasma membrane as one of the last steps of virus assembly and growth (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005) which is initiated by an interaction of the viral proteins. Virion surface glycoprotein projections are 10-14 nm in length and 4-6 nm in diameter. The viral nucleocapsid (NP) is segmented, has helical symmetry, and consists of different size classes, 50-150 nm in length (Fauquet et al., 2005). The nucleocapsid segments (the number of which depends on the virus type) surround the virion envelope which has large glycoprotein peplomers (HA, NA, HE). There are two kinds of glycoprotein peplomers[4]: (1) homotrimers of the hemagglutinin protein (NA) and (2) homotetramers of the neuraminidase protein (NA) [see 1 and 2]. Influenza C viruses have only one type of glycoprotein peplomer, consisting of multifunctional hemagglutinin-esterase molecules (HE) [see  § 1.4.1 for further details]. Genomic segments have a loop at one end and consist of a molecule of viral RNA enclosed within a capsid composed of helically arranged nucleoprotein (NP) as it is shown in 2 (Murphy et al., 1999). 2. Schematic representation of an influenza A virion showing the envelope in which three different types of transmembrane proteins are anchored: the hemagglutinin (HA) and the neuraminidase (NA) form the characteristic peplomers and the M2 protein, which is short and not visible by electron microscopy. Inside the envelope there is a layer of M1 protein that surrounds eight ribonucleoprotein (RNP) structures, each of which consists of one RNA segment covered with nucleoprotein (NP) and associated with the three polymerase (P) proteins (Murphy et al., 1999). The aforementioned in the previous paragraph NP protein (arginine-rich protein of approximately 500 amino acids) is the major structural protein of the eight RNPs and it has been found to be associated with the viral RNA segments. Each NP molecule covers approximately 20 nucleotides of the viral RNAs. The NP mediates the transport of the incoming viral RNPs from the cytoplasm into the nucleus by interacting with the cellular karyopherin/importin transport machinery. In addition, the NP plays an important role during viral RNA synthesis, and free NP molecules are required for full-length viral RNA synthesis, but not for viral mRNA transcription (Palese and Garcia-Sastre, 1998). 1.4.1. Influenza Viral Proteins Influenza A and B viruses possess eight single-stranded negative-sense RNA segments (see 2) that encode structural and nonstructural proteins [NS][5]: 1. Hemagglutinin (HA), a structural surface glycoprotein that mediates viral entry (see  § 1.5 for further details) by binding (the HA1 fragment) to sialic acid residues (present on the cell surface) on host fresh target cells, is the main target of the protective humoral immunity responses in the human host (Suguitan and Subbarao, 2007). HA is primarily responsible for the host range of influenza virus and immunity response of hosts to the infection (Consortium for Influenza Study at Shanghai, 2009). After the binding, the virus is taken up into the cell by endocytosis. At this point, the virus is still separated by the endosomal membrane from the replication and translation machinery of the cell cytoplasm (Fass, 2003). HA is initially synthesized and core-glycosylated in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)[6] as a 75-79 kDa precursor (HA0) which assembles into noncovalently linked homo-trimers. The trimers are rapidly transported to the Golgi complex and reach the plasma membrane, whe re HA insertion initiates the process of assembly and maturation of the newly formed viral particles (33-35). Just prior to or coincident with insertion into the plasma membrane, each trimer subunit is proteolytically and posttranslationally cleaved into two glycoproteins (polypeptides), HA1 and HA2 ( 3), which remain linked by a disulfide bond (Rossignol et al., 2009) and associated with one another to constitute the mature HA spike (a trimer of heterodimers). In that way, the membrane fusion during infection is promoted. Cleavage activates the hemagglutinin (HA), making it ready to attach to receptors on target cells (Murphy et al., 1999). Conclusively and in addition, the HA undergoes various post-translational modifications during its transport to the plasma membrane, including trimerization, glycosylation, disulfide bond formation, palmitoylation, proteolytic cleavage and conformational changes (Palese and Garcia-Sastre, 1998). HA1 is the subunit distal from the virus envelope, whereas HA2 contains a hydrophobic region near the carboxy terminus that anchors the HA1-HA2 complex in the membrane ( 3) [Fass, 2003]. The HA complex is brought to the cell surface via the secretory pathway and incorporated into virions, along with a section of cell membrane, as the virus buds from the cell. HA1 is the subunit distal from the virus envelope, whereas HA2 contains a hydrophobic region near the carboxy terminus that anchors the HA1-HA2 complex in the membrane (see 3) [Fass, 2003]. 3. Primary structure of influenza HA and spatial organization of subunits with respect to the membrane. Cleavage of the influenza HA precursor protein HA0 yields the two subunits HA1 and HA2. HA1 is white, the fusion peptide and transmembrane segments of HA2 are black, and the remainder of HA2 is cross-hatched. For clarity, a monomer of the HA1-HA2 assembly is shown. The amino and carboxy termini of HA2 are labelled ‘‘N and ‘‘C, respectively (Fass, 2003). 2. Neuraminidase (NA) is the other major surface glycoprotein, whose enzymatic function allows the release of newly formed virions, permits the spread of infectious virus from cell to cell, and keeps newly budding virions from aggregating at the host cell surface. This catalytic function of the NA protein is the target of the anti-influenza virus drugs oseltamivir (Tamiflu[7]) and zanamivir (Relenza7). Although these compounds do not directly prevent the infection of healthy cells, they limit the release of infectious progeny viruses thus inhibiting their spread and shortening the duration of the illness. These NA inhibitors are effective against all NA subtypes among the influenza A viruses and may be the primary antiviral drugs in the event of a future pandemic as it proved true in the current â€Å"swine flu† influenza A outbreak. Antibodies to the NA protein do not neutralize infectivity but are protective (Suguitan and Subbarao, 2007). Influenza C viruses lack an NA protein, and all attachment, entry and receptor destroying activities are performed by the aforementioned single spike glycoprotein: hemagglutinin-esterase-fusion (HEF) protein (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). The HEF protein distinguishes the antigenic variants of the genus C of the Orthomyxoviridae family, and the antibody to HEF protein neutralizes infectivity (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). Of the three virus types, A and B viruses are much more similar to each other in genome organization and protein homology than to C viruses, which suggests that influenza C virus diverged well before the split between A and B viruses (Webster, 1999). Three proteins comprise the viral polymerase of the influenza viruses: two basic proteins (PB1 and PB2) and an acidic protein (PA). They are present at 30 to 60 copies per virion. The RDRP (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase) complex consists of these 3 polymerase proteins (Lamb and Krug, 2001). Together with the aforementioned scaffold protein NP (helically arranged nucleoprotein), these three polymerase proteins associate with the RNA segments to form ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes (Murphy et al., 1999). Thus, the RNPs contain four proteins and RNA. Each subunit of NP associates with approximately 20 bases of RNA (Lamb and Krug, 2001). The RNP strands usually exhibit loops at one end and a periodicity of alternating major and minor grooves, suggesting that the structure is formed by a strand that is folded back on itself and then coiled on itself to form a type of twin-stranded helix (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). RDRP transcribes the genome RNA segments into messenger RNAs (mRNA). The RDR P complex carries out a complex series of reactions including cap binding, endonucleolytic cleavage, RNA synthesis, and polyadenylation[8]. The PA protein may be involved in viral RNA replication and, in addition, the expression of the PA protein in infected cells has been associated with proteolytic activity. The functional significance of the latter activity is not yet understood (Palese and Garcia-Sastre, 1998). Two viral RNA segments (7 and 8) encode at least two proteins each by alternative splicing. Gene segment 7 (see 4) codes for two proteins: matrix protein M1, which is involved in maintaining the structural integrity of the virion, and M2, an integral membrane (surface) protein that acts as an ion channel and facilitates virus uncoating. It is widely believed that the M1 protein interacts with the cytoplasmic tails of the HA, NA, and M2 (or BM2) proteins and also interacts with the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) structures, thereby organizing the process of virus assembly (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). The drugs amantadine and rimantadine bind to the influenza A M2 protein and interfere with its ability to transport hydrogen ions into the virion, preventing virus uncoating. Amantadine is only effective against influenza A viruses (Suguitsan and Subbarao, 2007). Therefore, for the antiviral therapy, there are two classes of drugs which are currently available for the chemoprophylaxis and the treatment of influenza (Rossignol et al., 2009). These include the aforementioned NA inhibitors oseltamivir and zanamivir, which impair the efficient release of viruses from the infected host cell, and amantadine and rimantadine, which target the viral M2 protein required for virus uncoating. Passively transferred antibodies to M2 can protect animals against influenza viruses, but such M2-specific antibodies are not consistently detected in human convalescent sera (Black et al., 1993), suggesting that this type of immunity may play a minor role in the clearance of influenza virus in humans. Gene segment 8 (see 4) is responsible for the synthesis of the nonstructural protein NS1 and nuclear export protein (NEP, formerly called NS2) [Murphy et al., 1999] which is a minor structural component of the viral core and that mediates nucleo-cytoplasmic trafficking of the viral genome (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). NEP (NS2) plays a role in the export of RNP from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. NS1 protein suppresses the antiviral mechanism in host cells upon viral infection (Chang et al., 2009) and is involved in modulating the hosts interferon response (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). Recently, an unusual 87-amino acid peptide arising from an alternative reading frame of the PB1 RNA segment has been described (Chen et al., 2001). This protein, PB1-F2, is believed to function in the induction of apoptosis[9] as a means of down-regulating the host immune response to influenza infection. Specifically, it appears to kill host immune cells following influenza virus infection. It has been called the influenza death protein (Chen et al., 2001). PB1 segment encodes this second protein from the +1 reading frame. This protein consists of 87-90 amino acids (depending on the virus strain). This protein is absent in some animal, particularly swine, virus isolates. PB1-F2 protein is not present in all human influenza viruses. Human H1N1 viruses encode a truncated version. However, it is consistently present in viruses known to be of increased virulence in humans, including the viruses that caused the 1918, 1957, and 1968 pandemics. PB1-F2 localizes to mitochondria and treatment of cells with a synthetic PB1-F2 peptide induces apoptosis9 (Neumann et al., 2008). 4. Orthomyxovirus genome organization. The genomic organization and ORFs are shown for genes that encode multiple proteins. Segments encoding the polymerase, hemagglutinin, and nucleoprotein genes are not depicted as each encodes a single protein. (A) Influenza A virus segment 8 showing NS1 and NS2 (NEP) mRNAs and their coding regions. NS1 and NS2 (NEP) share 10 amino-terminal residues, including the initiating methionine. The open reading frame (ORF)[10] of NS2 (NEP) mRNA (nt 529-861) differs from that of NS1. (B) Influenza A virus segment 7 showing M1 and M2 mRNAs and their coding regions. M1 and M2 share 9 amino-terminal residues, including the initiating methionine; however, the ORF of M2 mRNA (nt 740-1004) differs from that of M1. A peptide that could be translated from mRNA has not been found in vivo. (C) Influenza A virus PB1 segment ORFs10. Initiation of PB1 translation is thought to be relatively inefficient based on Kozaks rule[11], likely allowing initiation of PB1-F2 translation by ribosomal scanning (Fauquet et al., 2005). In the same way, the M2 protein is anchored in the viral envelope of the influenza A virus, the ion channel proteins BM2 (it is encoded by a second open reading frame10 of RNA segment 7 of influenza B virus, and its function has not been determined) and CM2 are contained in influenza B and C viruses respectively ( 5). The CM2 protein is most likely generated by cleavage of the precursor protein. The influenza B viruses encode one more transmembrane protein, or NB, of unknown function (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). The cellular receptor for the influenza C virus is known to be the 9-0-acetyl-N-acetylneuraminic acid, and its receptor-destroying enzyme is not an NA, as it was already mentioned, but a neuraminate-O-acetylesterase. Like the HA protein of A and B viruses, the HEF of influenza C viruses must be cleaved in order to exhibit membrane fusion activity (Palese and Garcia-Sastre, 1998). 1.5. Viral Entry Influenza virus infection is spread from cell to cell and from host to host in the form of infectious particles that are assembled and released from infected cells. A series of events must occur for the production of an infectious influenza virus particle, including the organization and concentration of viral proteins at selected sites on the cell plasma membrane, recruitment of a full complement of eight RNP segments to the assembly sites, and the budding and release of particles by membrane fission (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). Viral entry is a multistep process that follows at ­tachment of the virion to the cellular receptor and re ­sults in deposition of the viral genome (nucleocapsid) in the cytosol[12] (receptor-mediated endocytosis). The entry of enveloped viruses is exemplified by the influenza virus ( 6). The sequential steps in entry include (Nathanson, 2002):  § Attachment of the HA spike [the virus attachment protein (VAP)] to sialic acid receptors (bound to glycoproteins or glycolipids) on the cellu ­lar surface (see  § 1.4.1 for further details). This step contributes to pathogenesis, transmission, and host range restriction.  § Internalization of the virion into an endocytic vacuole.  § Fusion of the endocytic vacuole with a lysosome[13], with marked lowering of the pH (see 6). In endosomes, the low pH-dependent fusion occurs between viral and cell membranes. For influenza viruses, fusion (and infectivity) depends on the cleaved virion HA (FLUAV and FLUBV: HA1, HA2; FLUCV: HEF1, HEF2) [Murphy et al, 1999]. The infectivity and fusion activity are acquired by the post-translational cleavage of the HA of the influenza viruses which is accomplished by cellular proteases. Cleavability depends, among other factors, on the number of basic amino acids at the cleavage site. It produces a hydrophobic amino terminal HA2 molecule (Fauquet et al., 2005). 6. Diagram of the stepwise entry of influenza virus at a cellular level. Key events are attachment of the virion; internalization of the virion by endocytosis; lowering the pH of the endocytic vacuole leading to drastic reconfiguration of the viral attachment protein (hemagglutinin, HA1 and HA2); insertion of a hydrophobic domain of HA2 into the vacuolar membrane; fusion of the viral and vacuolar membranes; release of the viral nu ­cleocapsid into the cytosol (Nathanson, 2002).  § A drastic alteration in the structure of the HA1 trimer, with reorientation of the HA2 peptide to insert its proximal hydrophobic domain into the vacuolar membrane (Nathanson, 2002).  § Fusion of viral and vacuolar membranes (Nathanson, 2002).  § Integral membrane proteins migrate through the Golgi apparatus to localized regions of the plasma membrane (Fauquet et al., 2005).  § New virions form by budding, thereby incorporating matrix protein and the viral nucleocapsids which align below regions of the plasma membrane containing viral envelope proteins. Budding is from the apical surface in polarized cells (Fauquet et al., 2005).  § Release of the viral nucleocapsid into the cy ­tosol: After the formation of fusion pores, viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs) are delivered into the cytosol. RNPs are then transported into the nucleus, where transcription and replication occurs (see 7) [Garten and Klenk, 2008]. How the replication and the transcription of the genome of influenza virus take place in the nuclei of infected cells is summarized in detail by Palese and Garcia-Sastre (1998) [ 7]. (1) Adsorption: the virus interacts with sialic acid-containing cell receptors via its HA protein, and is intenalized by endosomes. (2) Fusion and uncoating: the HA undergoes a conformational change mediated by the acid environment of the endosome, which leads to the fusion of viral and cellular membranes. The inside of the virus also gets acidified due to proton trafficking through the M2 Ion channel. This acidification is responsible for the separation of the M1 protein from the ribonucleoproteins (RNPs), which are then transported into the nucleus of the host cell thanks to a nuclear localization Signal in the NP. (3) Transcription and replication: the viral RNA (vRNA) is transcribed and replicated in the nucleus by the viral polymerase. Two different species of RNA are synthesized from the vRNA template: (a) full-length copies (cRNA), which are used by the polymerase to produce more vRNA molecules; and (b) mRNA. (4) Translation: following export into the cytoplasm the mRNAs are translated to form viral proteins. The membrane proteins (HA, NA and M2) are transported via the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane. The viral proteins possessing nuclear signals (PB1, PB2, PA, NP, M1, NS1 and NEP) are transported into the nucleus. (5) Packaging and budding: the newly synthesized NEP protein appears to facilitate the transport of the RNPs from the nucleus into the cytoplasm by bridging the RNPs with the nuclear export machinery. M1-RNP complexes are formed which interact with viral proteins in the plasma membrane. Newly made viruses bud from the host cell membrane (Palese and Garcia-Sastre, 1998). 1.5.1. Sialic Acid Receptors of Influenza Viruses Sialic acids (Sias) are a family of negatively charged 9-carbon sugars typically occ Effect of H1N1 Swine Virus on Humans Effect of H1N1 Swine Virus on Humans How does the new H1N1 swine virus infect humans compared to the common influenza virus? SUMMARY Pandemic influenza viruses cause significant mortality in humans. In the 20th century, there are 3 influenza viruses which caused major pandemics: the 1918 H1N1 virus, the 1957 H2N2 virus, and the 1968 H3N2 virus. All three aforementioned pandemics were caused by viruses containing human adapted PB2 genes. In March and early April 2009, a new swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus (S-OIV) emerged in Mexico and the United States. During the first few weeks of strain surveillance, the virus spread worldwide to many countries by human-to-human transmission (and perhaps due to the airline travel). In 2 months time, 33 countries had officially reported 5.728 cases resulting in 61 deaths, and by June 2009 WHO reported 30 000 confirmed cases in 74 countries. On June 11 of 2009, this led the World Health Organization (WHO) to raise its pandemic alert to level 5 (Human-to-human spread of the virus into at least 2 countries in 1 WHO region) of 6 (Human-to-human spread of the virus into at least 1 other country in a different WHO region in addition to phase 5 criteria). According to the sayings of Smith et al. (2009), this virus had the potential to develop into the first influenza pandemic of the twenty-first century. In the early summer of 2009, the causes of the human infection and influenza spread among humans had still remained unknown although many publications of that period tried to elucidate this influenza outburst. For example, according to the sayings of Palese, the new H1N1 could also die out entirely. â€Å"Theres a 50-50 chance it will continue to circulate†, he predicts. Conclusively, in that early period, the fuzziness of the data about this new viruss behaviour led scientists only to speculate using past data. Today the 2009 H1N1 virus has ultimately created the first influenza pandemic, has disproportionately affected the younger populations (which perhaps reflects the protection in the elderly due to their exposure to H1N1 strains before 1957), bu t turned out to be not highly pathogenic because the majority of cases of 2009 influenza A H1N1 are mild. Genomic analysis of the 2009 influenza A (H1N1) virus in humans indicates that it is closely related to common reassortant swine influenza A viruses isolated in North America, Europe, and Asia. Therefore, it contains a combination of swine, avian, and human influenza virus genes. More studies need be conducted to identify the unrecognized molecular markers for the ability of S-OIV A (2009 H1N1) to replicate and be transmitted in humans. As a result these additional studies would help us to determine the mechanism by which an animal influenza A virus crossed the species barrier to infect humans. Additionally, these molecular determinants can be used to predict viral virulence and pathogenicity for diagnosis. 1. LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1. Introduction â€Å"Swine flu† †influenza A [Family Orthomyxoviridae (like influenza B and C viruses), Genus Influenzavirus A] is currently the greatest pandemic disease threat to humankind (Salomon and Webster, 2009). The incidence and spread in humans of the â€Å"swine flu† influenza A virus has raised global concerns regarding its virulence and initially regarding its pandemic potential. The main cause of the â€Å"swine flu† has been identified to be the human infection by influenza A viruses of a new H1N1 (hemagglutinin 1, neuraminidase 1) subtype, or â€Å"2009 H1N1 strain† (Soundararajan et al., 2009) that contains genes closely related to swine influenza (SI) [also called swine flu, hog flu and pig flu]. Thus, the strains of virus that cause the annual seasonal flu are different than the new swine flu viruses that emerged in the spring of 2009. Consequently, as it will be analyzed in the subsequent chapters, the new swine flu virus has a unique combinatio n of gene segments from many different sources (a combination that has not been previously reported among swine or human influenza viruses) and specifically is thought to be a mutation of four known strains of the influenza A virus, subtype H1N1: 1. one endemic in (normally infecting) humans, 2. one endemic in birds, 3. and two endemic in pigs (swine). According to Yoon and Janke (2002), the constant evolution of influenza A viruses through mutation and reassortment present a complex and dynamic picture which is to be unfolded in the remaining Literature Review section more specifically for the H1N1 2009 virus. 1.2. Influenza Influenza is historically an ancient disease of global dimension that causes annual epidemics and, at irregular intervals, pandemics. Influenza is an infection of the respiratory tract caused by the influenza virus (see  § 1.3). When compared with the majority of other viral respiratory infections (such as the common cold), the infection by influenza often causes a more severe illness (Smith, 2003). Influenza-like illness (ILI) is defined by the CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) as fever (with temperature above 37,8 °C) and either cough or some throat in the absence of any other known cause. According to Webster (1999), influenza is the paradigm of a viral disease in which the continued evolution of the virus is of paramount importance for annual epidemics and occasional pandemics of disease in humans which is attributed to the fact that the H1N1 virus does not fit to the strict definition of a new subtype for which most of the population has not any experience of previous infection (Sullivan et al, 2010) as it is justified later in this Literatute Review section ( § 1.8). Influenza is transmitted by inhalation of microdroplets (because the transmission via large-particle droplets requires close contact which is attributed to the fact that these large-particle droplets cannot remain suspended in the air for a long period of time) of respiratory secretions, often expelled by coughing or sneezing, that contain the virus or from other bodily fluids (such as fomites, diarrheal stool etc.). The incubation period is between 1 to 5 days. Symptoms typically include fever, headache, malaise, myalgia, cough, nasal discharge, and sore throat. In severe cases of influenza, a secondary bacterial pneumonia can lead to the death of a patient (Suguitan and Subbarao, 2007). Vaccination and antiviral treatment constitute the two major options for controlling influenza and are the most effective means of preventing influenza virus infection and further transmission in humans. 1.2.1. Pandemic Influenza An influenza pandemic is a large-scale global outbreak of the disease, whereas an epidemic is considered more sporadic and localized. The aforementioned (in the Summary section) situation of pandemic influenza occurs when a previously circulated human influenza A virus [although all the three types (A, B, and C) of influenza viruses can infect humans)] acquires novel antigenic determinants from an animal-origin influenza virus and now can infect and propagate in humans in the absence of any pre-existing immunity (see  § 1.7 for details). Several influenza subtypes have infected humans. Historical accounts led us to consider that an average of three influenza pandemics have occurred each century, at intervals ranging from 10 to 50 years (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). The three influenza pandemics which occurred in the previous (20th) century are: 1. The â€Å"Spanish† influenza pandemic of 1918 (H1N1 subtype), 2. The 1957 â€Å"Asian flu† (H2N2), and 3. The 1968 ‘‘Hong Kong flu (H3N2). These pandemics resulted in high morbidity, death, and also considerable social and economic disruption. They provide health authorities information on which to base preparations for a future pandemic.The first influenza pandemic of the 21st century, due to a new strain of A(H1N1) virus, was declared on 11 June 2009 by the Director-General of the World Health Organization (WHO) [Collin et al., 2009] by raising the H1N1 flu virus pandemic alert level to phase 6 as it was mentioned in the Summary section. Although influenza B viruses do not cause pandemics, during some epidemic years they have caused more significant mortality and morbidity than influenza A viruses (FLUAV) [Garcia-Sastre, 2005]. 1.3. Influenza Virus It was already mentioned that influenza viruses are divided into three types designated A, B, and C (according to the antigenic differences of their internal structural components as it is discussed below in the current chapter). Influenza types A and B are responsible for epidemics of respiratory illness that occur almost every winter and are often associated with increased rates for hospitalization and death. As it was mentioned in the previous chapter, influenza A virus has also the capability of developing into pandemic virus. Type C infection usually causes either a sporadic mild or asymptomatic respiratory illness or no symptoms at all (Smith, 2003). In comparison to B and C influenza types which are specific to humans, type A viruses can have different hosts, both birds and different mammals (e.g. horses and pigs) including humans (Ã…sjà ¶a and Kruse, 2007). Specifically, influenza B virus strains appear to infect naturally only humans and have caused epidemics every few years (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). On the other hand, influenza A viruses are significant animal pathogens of poultry, horses and pigs, and multiple antigenically diverse strains exist in a aquatic wild bird reservoir (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). Migrating aquatic birds carry viruses between the continents and thereby play a key role in the continuing process of virus evolution (Murphy et al., 1999). Influenza C virus causes more limited outbreaks in humans and according to Schmitt and Lamb (2005) also infects pigs. Although influenza viruses belong to the best studied viruses, according to Haller et al. (2008), the molecular determinants, which govern the increased virulence of emerging virus strains in humans and which may be associated with their transmission and transmissibility, are presently not well understood. Influenza viruses are negative-strand RNA[1] viruses with a segmented genome (which replicates in the nucleus of the infected cell) belonging to the Orthomyxoviridae family. The morphology of the influenza virion is described in the next chapter. On the basis of antigenic differences influenza viruses are divided into influenza virus types A, B and C. Influenza A viruses are classified on the basis of the antigenic properties of their haemagglutinin (H or HA) and their neuraminidase (N or NA) structural spike-shaped surface glycoproteins (antigens): to date, 16HA (H1-H16) and 9NA (N1-N9) subtypes have been identified (Osterhaus et al., 2008) which gives a theoretical possibility of 144 serological subtypes. Subtypes of influenza A viruses are constantly undergoing small antigenic modifications (antigenic drift) [which is a serotypic change] due to the accumulation of point mutations in their genetic material. In addition, due to the segmented genome, genetic reassortment occurs perio dically when HA and NA genetic material is exchanged between viruses, thereby causing major antigenic changes (antigenic shift) [Yoon and Janke, 2002], the emergence of a new subtype (Smith, 2003) and perhaps the potential for a pandemic outbreak. Both antigenic shift and drift are discussed in  § 1.7. The family Orthomyxoviridae, except the aforementioned influenza viruses A, B and C, also contains the Thogoto viruses. Thogoto viruses are transmitted by ticks and replicate in both ticks and in mammalian species and are not discussed as part of this assignment (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). 1.4. Influenza Virus Virion This paragraph describes the (belonging to the Orthomyxoviridae family) virus virion[2] morphology. These virions are spherical or pleomorphic, 80-120 nm in diameter (see 1). Some of them have filamentous forms of several micrometers in length. The virion envelope[3] is derived from cell membrane lipids, incorporating variable numbers of virus glycoproteins (1-3) and nonglycosylated proteins (1-2) [Fauquet et al., 2005]. 1. (Left) Diagram of an Influenza A virus (FLUAV) virion in section. The indicated glycoproteins embedded in the lipid membrane are the trimeric hemagglutinin (HA), which predominates, and the tetrameric neuraminidase (NA). The envelope also contains a small number of M2 membrane ion channel proteins. The internal components are the M1 membrane (matrix) protein and the viral ribonucleoprotein (RNP) consisting of RNA segments, associated nucleocapsid protein (NP), and the PA, PB1 and PB2 polymerase proteins. NS2 (NEP), also a virion protein, is not shown (Fauquet et al., 2005). (Right) Negative contrast electron micrograph of particles of FLUAV. The bar represents 100 nm (Fauquet et al., 2005). The lipid envelope is derived from the plasma membrane of the cell in which the virus replicates and is acquired by a budding process (see  § 1.5) from the cell plasma membrane as one of the last steps of virus assembly and growth (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005) which is initiated by an interaction of the viral proteins. Virion surface glycoprotein projections are 10-14 nm in length and 4-6 nm in diameter. The viral nucleocapsid (NP) is segmented, has helical symmetry, and consists of different size classes, 50-150 nm in length (Fauquet et al., 2005). The nucleocapsid segments (the number of which depends on the virus type) surround the virion envelope which has large glycoprotein peplomers (HA, NA, HE). There are two kinds of glycoprotein peplomers[4]: (1) homotrimers of the hemagglutinin protein (NA) and (2) homotetramers of the neuraminidase protein (NA) [see 1 and 2]. Influenza C viruses have only one type of glycoprotein peplomer, consisting of multifunctional hemagglutinin-esterase molecules (HE) [see  § 1.4.1 for further details]. Genomic segments have a loop at one end and consist of a molecule of viral RNA enclosed within a capsid composed of helically arranged nucleoprotein (NP) as it is shown in 2 (Murphy et al., 1999). 2. Schematic representation of an influenza A virion showing the envelope in which three different types of transmembrane proteins are anchored: the hemagglutinin (HA) and the neuraminidase (NA) form the characteristic peplomers and the M2 protein, which is short and not visible by electron microscopy. Inside the envelope there is a layer of M1 protein that surrounds eight ribonucleoprotein (RNP) structures, each of which consists of one RNA segment covered with nucleoprotein (NP) and associated with the three polymerase (P) proteins (Murphy et al., 1999). The aforementioned in the previous paragraph NP protein (arginine-rich protein of approximately 500 amino acids) is the major structural protein of the eight RNPs and it has been found to be associated with the viral RNA segments. Each NP molecule covers approximately 20 nucleotides of the viral RNAs. The NP mediates the transport of the incoming viral RNPs from the cytoplasm into the nucleus by interacting with the cellular karyopherin/importin transport machinery. In addition, the NP plays an important role during viral RNA synthesis, and free NP molecules are required for full-length viral RNA synthesis, but not for viral mRNA transcription (Palese and Garcia-Sastre, 1998). 1.4.1. Influenza Viral Proteins Influenza A and B viruses possess eight single-stranded negative-sense RNA segments (see 2) that encode structural and nonstructural proteins [NS][5]: 1. Hemagglutinin (HA), a structural surface glycoprotein that mediates viral entry (see  § 1.5 for further details) by binding (the HA1 fragment) to sialic acid residues (present on the cell surface) on host fresh target cells, is the main target of the protective humoral immunity responses in the human host (Suguitan and Subbarao, 2007). HA is primarily responsible for the host range of influenza virus and immunity response of hosts to the infection (Consortium for Influenza Study at Shanghai, 2009). After the binding, the virus is taken up into the cell by endocytosis. At this point, the virus is still separated by the endosomal membrane from the replication and translation machinery of the cell cytoplasm (Fass, 2003). HA is initially synthesized and core-glycosylated in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)[6] as a 75-79 kDa precursor (HA0) which assembles into noncovalently linked homo-trimers. The trimers are rapidly transported to the Golgi complex and reach the plasma membrane, whe re HA insertion initiates the process of assembly and maturation of the newly formed viral particles (33-35). Just prior to or coincident with insertion into the plasma membrane, each trimer subunit is proteolytically and posttranslationally cleaved into two glycoproteins (polypeptides), HA1 and HA2 ( 3), which remain linked by a disulfide bond (Rossignol et al., 2009) and associated with one another to constitute the mature HA spike (a trimer of heterodimers). In that way, the membrane fusion during infection is promoted. Cleavage activates the hemagglutinin (HA), making it ready to attach to receptors on target cells (Murphy et al., 1999). Conclusively and in addition, the HA undergoes various post-translational modifications during its transport to the plasma membrane, including trimerization, glycosylation, disulfide bond formation, palmitoylation, proteolytic cleavage and conformational changes (Palese and Garcia-Sastre, 1998). HA1 is the subunit distal from the virus envelope, whereas HA2 contains a hydrophobic region near the carboxy terminus that anchors the HA1-HA2 complex in the membrane ( 3) [Fass, 2003]. The HA complex is brought to the cell surface via the secretory pathway and incorporated into virions, along with a section of cell membrane, as the virus buds from the cell. HA1 is the subunit distal from the virus envelope, whereas HA2 contains a hydrophobic region near the carboxy terminus that anchors the HA1-HA2 complex in the membrane (see 3) [Fass, 2003]. 3. Primary structure of influenza HA and spatial organization of subunits with respect to the membrane. Cleavage of the influenza HA precursor protein HA0 yields the two subunits HA1 and HA2. HA1 is white, the fusion peptide and transmembrane segments of HA2 are black, and the remainder of HA2 is cross-hatched. For clarity, a monomer of the HA1-HA2 assembly is shown. The amino and carboxy termini of HA2 are labelled ‘‘N and ‘‘C, respectively (Fass, 2003). 2. Neuraminidase (NA) is the other major surface glycoprotein, whose enzymatic function allows the release of newly formed virions, permits the spread of infectious virus from cell to cell, and keeps newly budding virions from aggregating at the host cell surface. This catalytic function of the NA protein is the target of the anti-influenza virus drugs oseltamivir (Tamiflu[7]) and zanamivir (Relenza7). Although these compounds do not directly prevent the infection of healthy cells, they limit the release of infectious progeny viruses thus inhibiting their spread and shortening the duration of the illness. These NA inhibitors are effective against all NA subtypes among the influenza A viruses and may be the primary antiviral drugs in the event of a future pandemic as it proved true in the current â€Å"swine flu† influenza A outbreak. Antibodies to the NA protein do not neutralize infectivity but are protective (Suguitan and Subbarao, 2007). Influenza C viruses lack an NA protein, and all attachment, entry and receptor destroying activities are performed by the aforementioned single spike glycoprotein: hemagglutinin-esterase-fusion (HEF) protein (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). The HEF protein distinguishes the antigenic variants of the genus C of the Orthomyxoviridae family, and the antibody to HEF protein neutralizes infectivity (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). Of the three virus types, A and B viruses are much more similar to each other in genome organization and protein homology than to C viruses, which suggests that influenza C virus diverged well before the split between A and B viruses (Webster, 1999). Three proteins comprise the viral polymerase of the influenza viruses: two basic proteins (PB1 and PB2) and an acidic protein (PA). They are present at 30 to 60 copies per virion. The RDRP (RNA-dependent RNA polymerase) complex consists of these 3 polymerase proteins (Lamb and Krug, 2001). Together with the aforementioned scaffold protein NP (helically arranged nucleoprotein), these three polymerase proteins associate with the RNA segments to form ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes (Murphy et al., 1999). Thus, the RNPs contain four proteins and RNA. Each subunit of NP associates with approximately 20 bases of RNA (Lamb and Krug, 2001). The RNP strands usually exhibit loops at one end and a periodicity of alternating major and minor grooves, suggesting that the structure is formed by a strand that is folded back on itself and then coiled on itself to form a type of twin-stranded helix (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). RDRP transcribes the genome RNA segments into messenger RNAs (mRNA). The RDR P complex carries out a complex series of reactions including cap binding, endonucleolytic cleavage, RNA synthesis, and polyadenylation[8]. The PA protein may be involved in viral RNA replication and, in addition, the expression of the PA protein in infected cells has been associated with proteolytic activity. The functional significance of the latter activity is not yet understood (Palese and Garcia-Sastre, 1998). Two viral RNA segments (7 and 8) encode at least two proteins each by alternative splicing. Gene segment 7 (see 4) codes for two proteins: matrix protein M1, which is involved in maintaining the structural integrity of the virion, and M2, an integral membrane (surface) protein that acts as an ion channel and facilitates virus uncoating. It is widely believed that the M1 protein interacts with the cytoplasmic tails of the HA, NA, and M2 (or BM2) proteins and also interacts with the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) structures, thereby organizing the process of virus assembly (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). The drugs amantadine and rimantadine bind to the influenza A M2 protein and interfere with its ability to transport hydrogen ions into the virion, preventing virus uncoating. Amantadine is only effective against influenza A viruses (Suguitsan and Subbarao, 2007). Therefore, for the antiviral therapy, there are two classes of drugs which are currently available for the chemoprophylaxis and the treatment of influenza (Rossignol et al., 2009). These include the aforementioned NA inhibitors oseltamivir and zanamivir, which impair the efficient release of viruses from the infected host cell, and amantadine and rimantadine, which target the viral M2 protein required for virus uncoating. Passively transferred antibodies to M2 can protect animals against influenza viruses, but such M2-specific antibodies are not consistently detected in human convalescent sera (Black et al., 1993), suggesting that this type of immunity may play a minor role in the clearance of influenza virus in humans. Gene segment 8 (see 4) is responsible for the synthesis of the nonstructural protein NS1 and nuclear export protein (NEP, formerly called NS2) [Murphy et al., 1999] which is a minor structural component of the viral core and that mediates nucleo-cytoplasmic trafficking of the viral genome (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). NEP (NS2) plays a role in the export of RNP from the nucleus to the cytoplasm. NS1 protein suppresses the antiviral mechanism in host cells upon viral infection (Chang et al., 2009) and is involved in modulating the hosts interferon response (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). Recently, an unusual 87-amino acid peptide arising from an alternative reading frame of the PB1 RNA segment has been described (Chen et al., 2001). This protein, PB1-F2, is believed to function in the induction of apoptosis[9] as a means of down-regulating the host immune response to influenza infection. Specifically, it appears to kill host immune cells following influenza virus infection. It has been called the influenza death protein (Chen et al., 2001). PB1 segment encodes this second protein from the +1 reading frame. This protein consists of 87-90 amino acids (depending on the virus strain). This protein is absent in some animal, particularly swine, virus isolates. PB1-F2 protein is not present in all human influenza viruses. Human H1N1 viruses encode a truncated version. However, it is consistently present in viruses known to be of increased virulence in humans, including the viruses that caused the 1918, 1957, and 1968 pandemics. PB1-F2 localizes to mitochondria and treatment of cells with a synthetic PB1-F2 peptide induces apoptosis9 (Neumann et al., 2008). 4. Orthomyxovirus genome organization. The genomic organization and ORFs are shown for genes that encode multiple proteins. Segments encoding the polymerase, hemagglutinin, and nucleoprotein genes are not depicted as each encodes a single protein. (A) Influenza A virus segment 8 showing NS1 and NS2 (NEP) mRNAs and their coding regions. NS1 and NS2 (NEP) share 10 amino-terminal residues, including the initiating methionine. The open reading frame (ORF)[10] of NS2 (NEP) mRNA (nt 529-861) differs from that of NS1. (B) Influenza A virus segment 7 showing M1 and M2 mRNAs and their coding regions. M1 and M2 share 9 amino-terminal residues, including the initiating methionine; however, the ORF of M2 mRNA (nt 740-1004) differs from that of M1. A peptide that could be translated from mRNA has not been found in vivo. (C) Influenza A virus PB1 segment ORFs10. Initiation of PB1 translation is thought to be relatively inefficient based on Kozaks rule[11], likely allowing initiation of PB1-F2 translation by ribosomal scanning (Fauquet et al., 2005). In the same way, the M2 protein is anchored in the viral envelope of the influenza A virus, the ion channel proteins BM2 (it is encoded by a second open reading frame10 of RNA segment 7 of influenza B virus, and its function has not been determined) and CM2 are contained in influenza B and C viruses respectively ( 5). The CM2 protein is most likely generated by cleavage of the precursor protein. The influenza B viruses encode one more transmembrane protein, or NB, of unknown function (Garcia-Sastre, 2005). The cellular receptor for the influenza C virus is known to be the 9-0-acetyl-N-acetylneuraminic acid, and its receptor-destroying enzyme is not an NA, as it was already mentioned, but a neuraminate-O-acetylesterase. Like the HA protein of A and B viruses, the HEF of influenza C viruses must be cleaved in order to exhibit membrane fusion activity (Palese and Garcia-Sastre, 1998). 1.5. Viral Entry Influenza virus infection is spread from cell to cell and from host to host in the form of infectious particles that are assembled and released from infected cells. A series of events must occur for the production of an infectious influenza virus particle, including the organization and concentration of viral proteins at selected sites on the cell plasma membrane, recruitment of a full complement of eight RNP segments to the assembly sites, and the budding and release of particles by membrane fission (Schmitt and Lamb, 2005). Viral entry is a multistep process that follows at ­tachment of the virion to the cellular receptor and re ­sults in deposition of the viral genome (nucleocapsid) in the cytosol[12] (receptor-mediated endocytosis). The entry of enveloped viruses is exemplified by the influenza virus ( 6). The sequential steps in entry include (Nathanson, 2002):  § Attachment of the HA spike [the virus attachment protein (VAP)] to sialic acid receptors (bound to glycoproteins or glycolipids) on the cellu ­lar surface (see  § 1.4.1 for further details). This step contributes to pathogenesis, transmission, and host range restriction.  § Internalization of the virion into an endocytic vacuole.  § Fusion of the endocytic vacuole with a lysosome[13], with marked lowering of the pH (see 6). In endosomes, the low pH-dependent fusion occurs between viral and cell membranes. For influenza viruses, fusion (and infectivity) depends on the cleaved virion HA (FLUAV and FLUBV: HA1, HA2; FLUCV: HEF1, HEF2) [Murphy et al, 1999]. The infectivity and fusion activity are acquired by the post-translational cleavage of the HA of the influenza viruses which is accomplished by cellular proteases. Cleavability depends, among other factors, on the number of basic amino acids at the cleavage site. It produces a hydrophobic amino terminal HA2 molecule (Fauquet et al., 2005). 6. Diagram of the stepwise entry of influenza virus at a cellular level. Key events are attachment of the virion; internalization of the virion by endocytosis; lowering the pH of the endocytic vacuole leading to drastic reconfiguration of the viral attachment protein (hemagglutinin, HA1 and HA2); insertion of a hydrophobic domain of HA2 into the vacuolar membrane; fusion of the viral and vacuolar membranes; release of the viral nu ­cleocapsid into the cytosol (Nathanson, 2002).  § A drastic alteration in the structure of the HA1 trimer, with reorientation of the HA2 peptide to insert its proximal hydrophobic domain into the vacuolar membrane (Nathanson, 2002).  § Fusion of viral and vacuolar membranes (Nathanson, 2002).  § Integral membrane proteins migrate through the Golgi apparatus to localized regions of the plasma membrane (Fauquet et al., 2005).  § New virions form by budding, thereby incorporating matrix protein and the viral nucleocapsids which align below regions of the plasma membrane containing viral envelope proteins. Budding is from the apical surface in polarized cells (Fauquet et al., 2005).  § Release of the viral nucleocapsid into the cy ­tosol: After the formation of fusion pores, viral ribonucleoprotein complexes (RNPs) are delivered into the cytosol. RNPs are then transported into the nucleus, where transcription and replication occurs (see 7) [Garten and Klenk, 2008]. How the replication and the transcription of the genome of influenza virus take place in the nuclei of infected cells is summarized in detail by Palese and Garcia-Sastre (1998) [ 7]. (1) Adsorption: the virus interacts with sialic acid-containing cell receptors via its HA protein, and is intenalized by endosomes. (2) Fusion and uncoating: the HA undergoes a conformational change mediated by the acid environment of the endosome, which leads to the fusion of viral and cellular membranes. The inside of the virus also gets acidified due to proton trafficking through the M2 Ion channel. This acidification is responsible for the separation of the M1 protein from the ribonucleoproteins (RNPs), which are then transported into the nucleus of the host cell thanks to a nuclear localization Signal in the NP. (3) Transcription and replication: the viral RNA (vRNA) is transcribed and replicated in the nucleus by the viral polymerase. Two different species of RNA are synthesized from the vRNA template: (a) full-length copies (cRNA), which are used by the polymerase to produce more vRNA molecules; and (b) mRNA. (4) Translation: following export into the cytoplasm the mRNAs are translated to form viral proteins. The membrane proteins (HA, NA and M2) are transported via the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi apparatus to the plasma membrane. The viral proteins possessing nuclear signals (PB1, PB2, PA, NP, M1, NS1 and NEP) are transported into the nucleus. (5) Packaging and budding: the newly synthesized NEP protein appears to facilitate the transport of the RNPs from the nucleus into the cytoplasm by bridging the RNPs with the nuclear export machinery. M1-RNP complexes are formed which interact with viral proteins in the plasma membrane. Newly made viruses bud from the host cell membrane (Palese and Garcia-Sastre, 1998). 1.5.1. Sialic Acid Receptors of Influenza Viruses Sialic acids (Sias) are a family of negatively charged 9-carbon sugars typically occ

Industrial Relations Essay -- Politics, Bipartite Relationships

I. INTRODUCTION Industrial peace is one of the core issues in the field of industrial relations. Moore (1951) suggested that industrial conflicts can be minimized or prevented by resort to two types of procedures: first, a procedure of regulating and limiting the power of the two interest groups, especially by restricting power that can be exercised; second, a procedure of providing positive interference in industrial disputes. Both procedures suggest that beyond workers and employers, a third important player may also directly interfere in industrial relations processes. The Pluralist theory, the mainstream industrial relations theory, focuses primarily on the bipartite relationship between the workers and employers. The third player, governmental agencies, though is equally important, is largely overlooked (Keller, 1991). However, as a theory of politics in essence, the Pluralist theory requires considerable elaboration on such a missing piece, for it leaves itself open to questions of inequality of power among different interest groups: some groups may wield an influence on public policy which may not be the interest of other groups. Legislation and other public policy decisions oftentimes work through a complex process of political party structure (Hameed, 1982). Politics is one of the most important underlying developmental dynamic within industrial relations; as such governmental interference shall not be absent from existing theoretical frameworks. The primary objective of this paper is to examine the Pluralist theory focusing on its explanation on the role of governmental agencies in industrial relations. Furthermore, I hope to prove that the absence of the role of the state may be a theoretical flaw within Pluralis... ...on] McGuinty is being a lapdog for a union-hating right-wing mayor because he is afraid of Ford's political clout, not because he cares about transit in Toronto. (CBC News, 30 March, 2011) Though these statements may be purely Mr. Kinnear’s expression of personal interests, one interesting fact about this dispute is that, TTC management and TTC employees in fact unanimously oppose this provision. Management fear the unintended consequence of governmental intervention will reversely cause higher wage, TTC employees worry that they may lose their right to strike as a powerful channel to articulate themselves. All in all, it is without a doubt that government actively involves in this industrial conflict, and pluralism theory again, fails to explain why government has taken such an active role in interfering labour relations between TTC management and employees.

Dessler Chapter Essay

1) Which Amendment to the U. S. Constitution states that â€Å"no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of the law†? A) First Amendment B) Fifth Amendment C) Tenth Amendment D) Thirteenth Amendment E) Fourteenth Amendment Answer: B Explanation: The Fifth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution (ratified in 1791) states that â€Å"no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of the law. † The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) outlawed slavery, and courts have held that it bars racial discrimination. Diff: 2Page Ref: 32 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 2) The ________ Amendment to the U. S. Constitution outlawed slavery, and courts have held that it bars racial discrimination. A) First B) Fifth C) Tenth D) Thirteenth E) Fourteenth Answer: D Explanation: The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) outlawed slavery, and courts have held that it bars racial discrimination. The Fifth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution (ratified in 1791) states that â€Å"no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of the law. † Diff: 2Page Ref: 32 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 3) The 13th Amendment to the U. S. Constitution addresses the subject of ________. A) due process B) slavery C) private property D) trial by jury E) women’s rights Answer: B Explanation: The 13th Amendment to the U. S. Constitution abolished slavery and courts have held that it bars racial discrimination. The 5th Amendment addresses due process, and the 6th Amendment requires a trial by jury. Diff: 2Page Ref: 32 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 4) The ________ gives all persons the same right to make and enforce contracts and to benefit from the laws of the land. A) Fifth Amendment B) Civil Rights Act of 1866 C) Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act D) Civil Rights Act of 1991 E) Thirteenth Amendment Answer: B Explanation: The Civil Rights Act of 1866 gives all persons the same right to make and enforce contracts and to benefit from U. S. laws. The Fifth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution (ratified in 1791) states that â€Å"no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of the law. † The Thirteenth Amendment (1865) outlawed slavery, and courts have held that it bars racial discrimination. Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act states that employers cannot discriminate based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Diff: 2Page Ref: 32 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 5) Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act explicitly prohibits employers from discrimination based on all of the following characteristics EXCEPT ________. A) race B) religion C) color D) sexual orientation E) national origin Answer: D Explanation: Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act states that an employer cannot discriminate based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Title VII bars discrimination on the part of most employers both public and private with 15 or more employees. Sexual orientation is not directly addressed under the law. Diff: 1Page Ref: 32 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 6) According to Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which of the following employers would be legally allowed to refuse employment to an individual based on race, religion, or sex? A) a state agency with 65 employees B) a medical office with 25 employees C) a local restaurant with 10 employees D) a department store with 100 employees E) a public school with 30 employees Answer: C Explanation: Title VII bars discrimination on the part of most employers, including all public or private employers of 15 or more persons. It also covers all private and public educational institutions, the federal government, and state and local governments. A business with fewer than 15 employees would legally be allowed to refuse employment based on race, religion, sex, or national origin. Diff: 2Page Ref: 32 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Application 7) Which legislation was responsible for the creation of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission? A) 13th Amendment B) Equal Pay Act of 1963 C) Civil Rights Act of 1866 D) Executive Orders 11246 and 11375 E) Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act Answer: E Explanation: Title VII established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to administer and enforce the Civil Rights law at work. The commission itself consists of five members appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate. Executive Orders 11246 and 11375 established the Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs. Diff: 2Page Ref: 32 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 8) The EEOC was initially established to investigate complaints about ________. A) job discrimination B) unfair business practices C) sexual harassment in schools D) structural accommodations for disabled people E) overtime payments for labor union members Answer: A Explanation: Title VII established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) to administer and enforce the Civil Rights law at work. The EEOC receives and investigates job discrimination complaints from aggrieved individuals. Diff: 2Page Ref: 32 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 9) How many members serve on the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission? A) 3 B) 5 C) 9 D) 10 E) 12 Answer: B Explanation: The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) consists of five members appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate. Each member serves a 5-year term. Diff: 1Page Ref: 32 Chapter: 1 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 10) Which of the following appoints the members of the EEOC? A) U. S. Congress B) U. S. Supreme Court C) President of the United States D) Department of Justice E) American voters Answer: C Explanation: The EEOC consists of five members appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the Senate. Each member serves a 5-year term. Diff: 1Page Ref: 32 Chapter: 1 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 11) Which of the following requires equal pay for equal work regardless of sex? A) Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act B) Equal Pay Act of 1963 C) Executive Order 11246 D) Pay Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 E) Civil Rights Act of 1991 Answer: B Explanation: Under the Equal Pay Act of 1963 (amended in 1972), it is unlawful to discriminate in pay on the basis of sex when jobs involve equal work; require equivalent skills, effort, and responsibility; and are performed under similar working conditions. Diff: 1Page Ref: 33 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 12) When companies utilize ________, they take steps to eliminate the present effects of past discrimination. A) affirmative action B) executive orders C) rehabilitation action D) civil rights guidelines E) equal pay rules Answer: A Explanation: Affirmative action refers to steps that are taken for the purpose of eliminating the present effects of past discrimination. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 requires employers to pay equal pay for equal work, and the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires employers with federal contracts of more than $2,500 to take affirmative action in employing disabled persons. Diff: 1Page Ref: 33 Chapter: 1 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 13) Which of the following is responsible for implementing Executive Orders 11246 and 11375 that were issued by the Johnson administration? A) Equal Employment Opportunity Commission B) Pension Benefits Guarantee Corporation C) Occupational Safety and Health Administration D) National Labor Relations Board E) Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs Answer: E Explanation: The Johnson administration (1963–1969) issued Executive Orders 11246 and 11375 which didn’t just ban discrimination but also required that government contractors with contracts of over $50,000 and 50 or more employees take affirmative action to ensure employment opportunity for those who may have suffered past discrimination. These orders also established the Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP) to implement the orders and ensure compliance. Diff: 1Page Ref: 33 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 14) Which of the following factors is NOT an acceptable basis for different pay for equal work under the Equal Pay Act of 1963? A) merit B) seniority C) gender D) production quality E) production quantity Answer: C Explanation: Under the Equal Pay Act of 1963 (amended in 1972), it is unlawful to discriminate in pay on the basis of sex when jobs involve equal work; require equivalent skills, effort, and responsibility; and are performed under similar working conditions. Pay differences derived from seniority systems, merit systems, and systems that measure earnings by production quantity or quality or from any factor other than sex do not violate the act. Diff: 2Page Ref: 33 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 15) Paul is a 49-year-old American of Anglo-Saxon descent. What legislation is most likely intended to protect Paul from discrimination? A) Executive Order 11375 B) Equal Pay Act of 1963 C) Executive Order 11246 D) Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 E) Thirteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution Answer: D Explanation: The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) made it unlawful to discriminate against employees or applicants who are between 40 and 65 years of age. Executive Orders 11246 and 11375 require government contractors to take affirmative action, the 13th Amendment barred slavery, and the Equal Pay Act made it unlawful to discriminate in pay based on the employee’s gender. Diff: 2Page Ref: 33 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Application 16) According to the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, it is unlawful to ________. A) sue an employer for age-based pay B) fire older employees for insubordination C) require employees to retire at age 65 D) allow juries to determine age discrimination E) institute a minimum age for employees Answer: C Explanation: The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA) made it unlawful to discriminate against employees or applicants who are between 40 and 65 years of age. Subsequent amendments eliminated the age cap, effectively ending most mandatory retirement at age 65. The ADEA allows jury trials. Diff: 2Page Ref: 33 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 17) The ________ requires certain federal contractors to take affirmative action for disabled persons. A) Equal Pay Act B) Vocational Rehabilitation Act C) Age Discrimination in Employment Act D) Americans with Disabilities Act E) Civil Rights Act Answer: B Explanation: The Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires employers with federal contracts of more than $2,500 to take affirmative action in employing disabled persons. It does not require hiring unqualified people. It does require an employer to take steps to accommodate a disabled worker unless doing so imposes an undue hardship on the employer, which is addressed by the ADA. Diff: 1Page Ref: 33 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 18) Which of the following refers to highly recommended procedures issued by federal agencies regarding employee selection, record keeping, and preemployment inquiries? A) job specifications B) employment metrics C) process charts D) uniform guidelines E) applicant tracking systems Answer: D Explanation: Uniform guidelines are issued by federal agencies charged with ensuring compliance with equal employment federal legislation explaining recommended employer procedures in detail. They set forth â€Å"highly recommended† procedures regarding things like employee selection, record keeping, and preemployment inquiries. Diff: 1Page Ref: 34 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 19) Which of the following does NOT participate in the issuance of uniform guidelines? A) EEOC B) Department of Labor C) Better Business Bureau D) Department of Justice E) Civil Service Commission Answer: C Explanation: The EEOC, Civil Service Commission, Department of Labor, and Department of Justice together issued uniform guidelines. These set forth â€Å"highly recommended† procedures regarding things like employee selection, record keeping, and preemployment inquiries. The Better Business Bureau is not involved in issuing uniform guidelines. Diff: 1Page Ref: 34 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 20) Uniform guidelines from the EEOC are recommended for employers to use in matters regarding all of the following EXCEPT ________. A) employee selection B) record keeping C) preemployment inquiries D) sexual harassment E) psychological testing Answer: E Explanation: The EEOC, Civil Service Commission, Department of Labor, and Department of Justice together issue uniform guidelines. These set forth â€Å"highly recommended† procedures regarding things like employee selection, record keeping, sexual harassment, and preemployment inquiries. The American Psychological Association has its own non-legally binding Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing. Diff: 2Page Ref: 34 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 21) Which Supreme Court case was used to define unfair discrimination in conjunction with EEO laws? A) Buckley v. Valeo B) Brown v. Board of Education C) Griggs v. Duke Power Company D) West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish E) Abington School District v. Schempp Answer: C Explanation: Griggs v. Duke Power Company was a landmark Supreme Court case used to define unfair discrimination as put forth in EEO laws such as Title VII. The Court ruled that employment practices must be job related and that discrimination does not have to be overt to be illegal. Brown v. Board of Education held that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. Choices A, D, and E were not cases related to EEO laws. Diff: 2Page Ref: 34 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 22) In Griggs v. Duke Power Company, Griggs sued the power company because it required coal handlers to be high school graduates. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of Griggs because ________. A) high school diplomas were not related to success as a coal handler B) Duke Power Company intentionally discriminated based on race C) no business necessity existed for Duke Power Company D) Title VII forbids job testing E) Griggs held a GED Answer: A Explanation: The Court ruled in favor of Griggs because having a high school diploma was not relevant to the job of coal handler. The Court held that an employment practice must be job related if it has an unequal impact on members of a protected class. Diff: 2Page Ref: 34 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 23) If a person is in a protected class, he or she is protected by which of the following? A) Department of Labor guidelines B) Sarbanes-Oxley Act C) Title VII of the Civil Rights Act D) Consumer Protection Act E) National Labor Relations Board Answer: C Explanation: The term protected class refers to persons such as minorities and women who are protected by equal opportunity laws, including Title VII. Choices A, B, D, and E are not equal opportunity laws. Diff: 1Page Ref: 34 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 24) All of the following are principles established by Griggs v. Duke Power Company EXCEPT ________. A) burden of proof is on the employer B) performance standards should be unambiguous C) business necessity is a defense for an existing program D) employment selection practices must be job related E) discrimination does not have to be overt to be illegal Answer: B Explanation: The Court ruled in Griggs v. Duke Power Company that the burden of proof is on the employer to show that a hiring practice such as testing is job related. The Court also ruled that business necessity is the defense for any existing program that has adverse impact and that discrimination does not have to be overt to be illegal. The case did not address performance standards. Diff: 3Page Ref: 34-35 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 25) Under the principles established by Griggs v. Duke Power Company, ________ can be used as a defense for any existing program that has adverse impact. A) occupational qualification B) business necessity C) affirmative action D) burden of proof E) fair in form Answer: B Explanation: Business necessity is the defense for any existing program that has adverse impact according to Griggs. The court did not define business necessity. Diff: 2Page Ref: 35 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 26) Which court case provided details regarding how employers could validate the relationship between screening tools and job performance? A) West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish B) Albemarle Paper Company v. Moody C) Griggs v. Duke Power Company D) Burlington Industries v. Ellerth E) Ward Cove v. Atonio Answer: B Explanation: In the Albemarle case, the Court provided more details on how employers could prove that tests or other screening tools relate to job performance. For example, the Court said that if an employer wants to test candidates for a job, then the employer should first clearly document and understand the job’s duties and responsibilities. Diff: 2Page Ref: 35 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 27) Under the Civil Rights Act of 1991, once a plaintiff shows disparate impact, who has the burden of proving that the challenged practice is job related? A) plaintiff B) employee C) employer D) judge E) EEOC Answer: C Explanation: According to the Civil Rights Act of 1991, once an aggrieved applicant or employee demonstrates that an employment practice (such as â€Å"must lift 100 pounds†) has a disparate (or â€Å"adverse†) impact on a particular group, then the burden of proof shifts to the employer, who must show that the challenged practice is job related. Diff: 1Page Ref: 36 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 28) According to the Civil Rights Act of 1991, an employee who claims intentional discrimination can sue for all of the following EXCEPT ________. A) back pay B) job reinstatement C) punitive damages D) compensatory damages E) substantive consolidation Answer: E Explanation: According to the Civil Rights Act of 1991, an employee who claims intentional discrimination can sue for back pay, attorneys’ fees, court costs, job reinstatement, punitive damages, and compensatory damages. Substantive consolidation is a legal term referring to debt consolidation. Diff: 2Page Ref: 36 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 29) Race, color, religion, sex, or national origin is a motivating factor in a termination, but the employee would have been terminated for failure to perform anyway. Which of the following most likely exists in this situation? A) mixed motive B) business necessity C) disparate impact D) liability defense E) burden of proof Answer: A Explanation: An unlawful employment practice is established when the complaining party demonstrates that race, color, religion, sex, or national origin was a motivating factor for any employment practice, even though other factors also motivated the practice. Some employers in so-called â€Å"mixed motive† cases had taken the position that even though their actions were discriminatory, other factors like the employee’s dubious behavior made the job action acceptable. Under CRA 1991, an employer cannot avoid liability by proving it would have taken the same action—such as terminating someone—even without the discriminatory motive. Diff: 3Page Ref: 36 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Application 30) Which of the following requires employers to make reasonable accommodations for disabled employees? A) Civil Rights Act of 1991 B) Equal Pay Act of 1963 C) Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 D) Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 E) Disability Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 Answer: C Explanation: The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 prohibits employment discrimination against qualified disabled individuals. It also says employers must make â€Å"reasonable accommodations† for physical or mental limitations unless doing so imposes an â€Å"undue hardship† on the business. Diff: 1Page Ref: 36 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 31) According to the Americans with Disabilities Act, which of the following would be considered a disability? A) homosexuality B) voyeurism C) pyromania D) compulsive gambling E) AIDS Answer: E Explanation: The ADA specifies conditions that it does not regard as disabilities, including homosexuality, bisexuality, voyeurism, compulsive gambling, pyromania, and certain disorders resulting from the current illegal use of drugs. The EEOC’s position is that the ADA prohibits discriminating against people with HIV/AIDS. Diff: 1Page Ref: 36 Chapter: 1 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 32) Which type of disability accounts for the greatest number of ADA claims? A) drug-related B) cosmetic C) mental D) vision E) hearing Answer: C Explanation: Mental disabilities account for the greatest number of ADA claims. Under EEOC ADA guidelines, â€Å"mental impairment† includes â€Å"any mental or psychological disorder, such as . . . emotional or mental illness. † Drug-related conditions are generally not regarded as disabilities. Diff: 1Page Ref: 36 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 33) Under ADA, those who can carry out the essential functions of the job are known as which of the following? A) protected class B) line managers C) career anchors D) staff authorities E) qualified individuals Answer: E Explanation: The ADA prohibits discrimination against qualified individuals—those who, with (or without) a reasonable accommodation, can carry out the essential functions of the job. The individual must have the requisite skills, educational background, and experience to do the job. Diff: 1Page Ref: 37 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 34) Which of the following best explains why employers win the majority of ADA cases? A) Employers make the necessary reasonable accommodations for employees. B) Employers prove that age negatively impacts an employee’s job performance. C) Employees fail to prove that they are disabled yet qualified to perform a job. D) Conservative judges are sympathetic towards small-business owners. E) Employee attorneys fail to draw connections between Title VII and ADA. Answer: C Explanation: Employers traditionally prevailed in almost all—96%—federal circuit court ADA decisions. A main reason is that employees were failing to show that they were disabled and qualified to do the job. Unlike with Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, the employee must establish that he or she has a disability that fits under the ADA. Diff: 3Page Ref: 38 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 35) Which of the following will be the most likely result of the ADA Amendments Act of 2008? A) Employees will find it easier to prove that their disabilities are limiting. B) The number of major life activities considered disabilities will be narrowed. C) Employers will be required to make fewer accommodations for workers with disabilities. D) Employers will be required to hire a specific percentage of disabled workers to be in compliance. E) Employees will apply for more jobs knowing that the legislation guarantees their employment. Answer: A Explanation: The new ADAA’s basic effect will be to make it much easier for employees to show that their disabilities are limiting. For example, the new act makes it easier for an employee to show that his or her disability is influencing one of the employee’s â€Å"major life activities. † It does this by adding examples like reading, concentrating, thinking, sleeping, and communicating to the list of ADA major life activities. Diff: 3Page Ref: 38 Chapter: 2 Objective: 1 Skill: Concept 36) In which of the following situations does sexual harassment NOT violate Title VII? A) if the conduct substantially interferes with a person’s work performance B) if the conduct creates an intimidating work environment C) if the conduct creates a hostile work environment D) if the conduct is motivated by both age and gender E) if the conduct creates an offensive work environment Answer: D Explanation: Under Title VII, sexual harassment generally refers to harassment on the basis of sex when such conduct has the purpose or effect of substantially interfering with a person’s work performance or creating an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment. Sexual harassment violates Title VII. The motivation behind the conduct is not relevant to Title VII violations. Diff: 3Page Ref: 39 Chapter: 2 Objective: 2 Skill: Concept 37) The ________ provides that a person who commits a crime of violence motivated by gender shall be liable to the party injured. A) Civil Rights Act of 1991 B) Federal Violence Against Women Act of 1994 C) Pregnancy Discrimination Act D) Vietnam Era Veterans’ Readjustment Assistance Act of 1974 E) Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973 Answer: B Explanation: The Federal Violence Against Women Act of 1994 provides that a person who commits a crime of violence motivated by gender shall be liable to the party injured. The law offers an additional path women can use to seek relief for violent sexual harassment. Diff: 1Page Ref: 40 Chapter: 2 Objective: 2 Skill: Concept 38) Which of the following is NOT a form of sexual harassment according to EEOC guidelines? A) unwelcome sexual advances that create an intimidating work environment B) requests for sexual favors made implicitly as a condition of employment C) verbal conduct of a sexual nature that unreasonably interferes with work performance D) physical conduct of a sexual nature that creates an offensive work environment E) mutually consensual physical conduct of a sexual nature between co-workers Answer: E Explanation: EEOC guidelines define sexual harassment as unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature that create an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment or interfere with work performance. Requests for sexual favors that are used as the basis for employment decisions are also considered sexual harassment. Consensual sex between co-workers is not considered sexual harassment. Diff: 3Page Ref: 41 Chapter: 2 Objective: 2 Skill: Concept 39) All of the following are ways for an employee to prove sexual harassment EXCEPT by proving that ________. A) the verbal remarks of a co-worker were sexually flirtatious B) the rejection of a supervisor’s sexual advances led to a demotion C) a hostile work environment was created by a co-worker’s sexual conversation D) a hostile work environment was created by a nonemployee’s sexual advances E) a hostile work environment was created by a supervisor’s sexually abusive conduct Answer: A Explanation: The U. S. Supreme Court held that sexual harassment law doesn’t cover ordinary â€Å"intersexual flirtation. † Someone can prove sexual harassment if rejecting a supervisor’s sexual advances led to a demotion, firing, or altered work assignment. Sexual harassment can also be proven if a hostile work environment is created by the sexual conduct of supervisors, co-workers, or nonemployees. Diff: 3Page Ref: 41 Chapter: 2 Objective: 2 Skill: Application 40) Judy was up for a promotion at Simpson Consulting when her supervisor, Will, encouraged her to develop a sexual relationship with him. He suggested that her promotion would be a sure thing if they were involved. When Judy declined his advances, Will fired her. Which of the following would Judy most likely be able to prove in court if she decided to sue Simpson Consulting? A) hostile environment created by nonemployees B) hostile environment created by supervisors C) hostile environment created by co-workers D) disparate treatment E) quid pro quo Answer: E Explanation: Quid pro quo (something for something) is the most direct way to prove that rejecting a supervisor’s advances adversely affected what the EEOC calls a â€Å"tangible employment action† such as hiring, firing, promotion, demotion, and/or work assignment. Quid pro quo would be the best option for Judy if she sues the firm for Will’s actions. Diff: 3Page Ref: 41 Chapter: 2 Objective: 2 Skill: Application 41) Gus is always making sexual jokes at work. Many employees find the jokes funny, but Shelley, Gus’s executive assistant, is uncomfortable with the jokes. Eventually, she decides to quit her job rather than endure the jokes any longer. What form of sexual harassment has Shelley experienced? A) quid pro quo B) hostile environment created by supervisors C) hostile environment created by co-workers D) hostile environment created by nonemployees E) none of the above; Shelley is not a victim of sexual harassment Answer: B Explanation: As Shelley’s supervisor, Gus created a hostile environment according to the EEOC. A claimant does not need to show that the harassment had tangible consequences such as demotion. It is sufficient in many cases to prove that a supervisor’s sexual harassment substantially affected an employee’s emotional and psychological abilities. Diff: 3Page Ref: 41 Chapter: 2 Objective: 2 Skill: Application 42) All of the following are ways that an employer can minimize liability in sexual harassment claims EXCEPT ________. A) maintaining thorough records of all sexual harassment complaints B) informing all employees about sexual harassment investigations C) instituting a sexual harassment reporting process D) training employees in sexual harassment policies E) investigating sexual harassment charges promptly Answer: B Explanation: Maintaining records of complaints, instituting a reporting policy, providing sexual harassment training, and investigating charges quickly are ways that employers can show that they took reasonable care to prevent and correct sexual harassment, which will minimize the employer’s liability. Sexual harassment investigations should be conducted privately, and the information should not be made available to all employees. Diff: 3Page Ref: 42 Chapter: 2 Objective: 2 Skill: Concept 43) Sanders Sporting Goods, an international sporting goods chain, is being sued for sexual harassment by a former Sanders employee. The plaintiff asserts that she was the victim of numerous unwanted sexual advances from a male co-worker. The woman claims that Sanders’ management condoned a hostile work environment and that the company is liable for the actions of the male employee. Which of the following, if true, would best support the plaintiff’s argument that Sanders is liable for sexual harassment? A) Sanders re-published its sexual harassment policy twice within the last year. B) The HR department at Sanders has records of the plaintiff’s initial complaints. C) Exit interviews of outgoing Sanders employees include questions about sexual harassment. D) Sanders lacks a management response system for handling sexual harassment complaints. E) Sanders recently lost a court case filed by former employees who claimed disparate treatment. Answer: D Explanation: Employers can minimize their liability in sexual harassment claims by showing that they have a response system set up for handling sexual harassment complaints, so Sanders may be liable if it lacks a system. Firms that re-publish their sexual harassment policies frequently, keep thorough records of complaints, and address sexual harassment issues during exit interviews are able to show that they took reasonable care to prevent sexual harassment. Disparate treatment refers to discrimination claims rather than sexual harassment claims. Diff: 3Page Ref: 42 AACSB: Reflective Thinking Chapter: 2 Objective: 2 Skill: Critical Thinking 44) Sanders Sporting Goods, an international sporting goods chain, is being sued for sexual harassment by a former Sanders employee. The plaintiff asserts that she was the victim of numerous unwanted sexual advances from a male co-worker. The woman claims that Sanders’ management condoned a hostile work environment and that the company is liable for the actions of the male employee. Which of the following, if true, would most likely undermine the plaintiff’s claim that Sanders is liable for the male employee’s conduct? A) The male employee physically threatened the plaintiff on three occasions. B) The male employee made sexual advances towards the plaintiff on a daily basis. C) The male employee was required by HR to participate in a sexual harassment awareness course. D) The male employee’s conduct significantly interfered with the plaintiff’s ability to perform her job. E) The plaintiff discussed her concerns about the male employee’s conduct with female co-workers. Answer: C Explanation: If the male employee was required to take a sexual harassment course, then that action shows Sanders was making a reasonable attempt to stop the behavior. Choices A, B, and D support the plaintiff’s claim that ther